Dictators love them, too. Nicolai Ceausescu's vulgar palace in Bucharest used 3, tonnes of crystal in over chandeliers. And yet, who among us isn't secretly a little enchanted by the sight of even the smallest chandelier suspended over a dining table? A sign surely that we all relish a hint of grandeur in our lives. We acknowledge Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as the First Australians and Traditional Custodians of the lands where we live, learn, and work.
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Coming from an aficionado of all things beautiful, the Chandelier rates highest as the finishing touch in the well-appointed home.
Chandeliers are associated with domestic elegance, wealth and beauty, thanks to scene decorators for glamorous Hollywood movies. Lavish cut-crystal chandeliers hanging from elegant dining room ceilings have come a long way from their humble beginnings.
The derivation of the English word Chandelier, dating from , comes from the French Chandelle candle. The Latin derivation is from the word Candelabrum. The first chandeliers were designed as a humble wood cross with a spike on each end supporting candles made of animal fat. These were suspended from ceilings of 15th century medieval abbeys and churches, as they offered a more effective form of lighting. Later this simple cross design was adapted to variations of a many-candled crowned ring, embellished with long curving arms of ormolu metal castings.
The typical style developed by Perry consisted of tall, narrow stem pieces, large top canopies adorned with swags and pear-shaped pendants, twisted rope glass arms and heart-shaped bottom finials.
The repeal of the Glass Excise Act in enabled English glassmakers to prosper. Chandeliers became an increasingly important aspect of the glass trade during this century, with numerous firms involved in their production. The advent of the Industrial Revolution around had important consequences for chandelier design. Mechanisation and technological advancements reduced manufacturing costs and facilitated higher standards of craftsmanship.
An example of this is the invention of a machine that could cut crystals with perfect precision by Daniel Swarovski in Austria, which he patented in In addition, industrialisation meant that wealth became more widely distributed across society, with a growing middle class being able to afford luxury goods such as chandeliers for their homes.
Increasing numbers of people aspired, and were able to afford, to emulate the lives of the old aristocrats through acquiring luxurious ornamentations. The nineteenth century was also a time when new sources of light emerged and gradually came to eclipse the use of candles. These were generally cheaper, much brighter, more efficient and required relatively little maintenance. Early in the century, oil- and then kerosene-burning chandeliers made an appearance Mccaffety, By the s, gas lighting was common and the gasolier emerged in the second half of the century.
These were often made in the intricate Rococo style and featured both gas burners and candle arms. As gas flames were found to burn too brightly in comparison to candlelight, opaque shields made of alabaster were often added to soften the glare.
However, it was the invention of the electric light bulb in by Thomas Edison that had the most transformative effect on chandelier and lighting design more generally.
Lightbulbs very quickly became widely available in lighting fixtures for domestic use. Chandelier designs were adapted in several ways. Most notably, solid glass stems and arms were replaced with hollow versions so that they could accommodate electric wiring. The absence of candles also meant that chandelier arms and lighting fixtures could be twisted downwards with light being directed down into the room.
It is helpful to explore the evolution of the Venetian chandelier in separation from the other Europe styles already discussed.
This is because its development followed a quite separate trajectory, resulting in distinct styles and techniques of manufacture. Venetian chandeliers are the product of the exceptional glass-making industry of Murano, a small island near Venice.
The history of Murano glass began in when it was ordered that all glass manufacture should be transferred from Venice to the island due to the risk of fire. Shortly after, the Venetian Republic introduced strict laws banning emigration and local glassmakers from practicing their craft outside Murano. These measures represented an attempt to contain glass production and its coveted secrets in one place and thereby retain a competitive advantage in the face of foreign competition. However, despite the enforcement of increasingly harsh punishments for defiant glassmakers, which included imprisonment and killings, emigration from Murano to the rest of Europe was to continue throughout the coming centuries Magno, The golden age of Murano glass production roughly spans the fifteenth to the early seventeenth centuries.
The industry took off in the s after Angelo Barovier invented the perfectly transparent glass known as crystallo which was to become exceedingly popular across Europe. Unlike rock crystal or lead glass, Venetian glass is not cut. Instead, it is melted and moulded which makes it more malleable, lending itself to intricate designs and also a softer appearance.
Barovier, along with his descendants, developed many of the techniques which lend Murano glass its distinctive style, including chalcedony used to create multi-coloured glass millefiori and milk glass lattimo which was inspired by Chinese porcelain.
A particularly renowned craftsman during this period was Giuseppe Briati He specialised in the production of what is now recognised as the classic Murano chandelier. These comprised a central metal axis from which emanated numerous arms decorated with polychromatic or transparent flowers, leaves and fruits, as well as moulded crystals.
This new style of chandelier was known as a ciocche , meaning bouquet of flowers. Their ornateness, exoticism and colour reflected the Baroque and Rococo influences of the time. Briati is also famed for creating the Rezzonico chandelier, named after the palace that now houses the Museum of Eighteenth Century Venetian Art. As the image below illustrates, these chandeliers were often very large as well as being amongst the most colourful and intricate of all styles Mariacher.
Unfortunately, it was precisely the popularity of Murano glass that would lead to a period of crisis characterised by a substantial decline in demand and production from the late seventeenth century on. Despite protectionist measures, Venetian-style glass was being imitated across Europe.
It was relatively successful in this endeavour which resulted in the founding of the Saint Gobain company in , which became a leader in crystal production.
Glass production in foreign markets also began to pose a serious challenge around this time. In particular, Bohemian glass made of potash crystal and ideal for engraving was becoming increasingly popular, as was English lead glass with its high refractive properties. Along with many other industries, glass production declined dramatically, many furnaces closed down and some techniques were entirely forgotten.
The tide of decline began to be reversed from the s on. In , he established the Museum of Glass on Murano in order to gather the best examples of glassware as a source of inspiration for future generations. He also opened a school, which is still in operation today, for experienced glassmakers to train young apprentices.
In , the first exhibition of Murano glassware was held on the island. Murano glass was also showcased and highly praised at the universal exposition in Paris in The unification of Italy during this period also created a more favourable climate for Italian-made products, including Murano glass, to compete with other European countries.
All of these developments contributed to the revival of Murano glass and spurred its growing popularity. Pietro Bigaglia, Angelo Ongaro, Giovanni Fuga, Vincenzo Moretti and Andrea Rioda are all examples of craftsman who studied and revived ancient techniques such as murrine and milk glass Mariacher. To this day, there is a high demand for Murano glass chandeliers which continue to be exported all over the world. It is important to emphasise that throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the great historic European chandelier styles have remained remarkably resilient.
The Dutch brass-ball stem, French Baroque and Georgian chandeliers, especially, have clearly stood the test of time. Still today, traditional chandeliers not only survive, but are thriving, being continually emulated and reworked.
There has never been a wider range from which to choose, whether they be reclaimed period pieces, relatively inexpensive repro models or handmade in traditional styles Wilhide, The chandelier did fall out of favour in design circles around the late twentieth century, owing to the fact it was considered to be at odds with the preference for modern minimalist interiors Wilhide, Yet over the past couple of decades there has been a strong revival of interest amongst designers and the general public.
Having said this, there were some important design trends that made a resolute break from traditional styles. The Paris Exhibition of featured some impressive chandeliers made in the Art Deco style. The Art Noveau style of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries circa also involved a rejection of traditional styles.
Artists and designers turned instead to nature for inspiration, and chandeliers typically incorporated designs featuring sinuous lines, vines, flowers and insects. Louis Comfort Tiffany was perhaps the most prominent figure of the Art Nouveau movement and is particularly famed for his electrolier designs made with stained glass. As previously mentioned, chandeliers fell out of favour for a considerable period during the latter part of the twentieth century when minimalism and hidden or recessed lighting was the norm.
In recent decades, though, modern designers have enthusiastically embraced the chandelier and are creating innovative designs entirely unrelated to previous styles Wilhide, The wide range of unconventional materials now being used, combined with innovations in lighting technology, such as LEDs and fibre optics, has served to broaden the concept of the chandelier considerably, as the examples below attest.
Others have made chandeliers out of wine glasses, broken plates, glass bottles, discarded bike parts and even gummy bears.
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